The mid-eighteenth century marked a decisive turning point in the European international system. The conclusion of the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763) reshaped diplomatic alliances, military priorities, and the balance of power among the major continental states. In this turbulent context, the Russian Empire underwent a dramatic political transition with the brief reign of Peter III of Russia and the subsequent rise of Catherine II, known as Catherine the Great. Their contrasting geopolitical visions—particularly regarding Prussia and Frederick II—had profound consequences not only for Russia’s foreign policy but also for the broader European order.
This essay provides an academic and geopolitically focused analysis of:
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the foreign policy of Peter III and his controversial decision to withdraw Russia from the Seven Years’ War;
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the “pardon” granted to Frederick II of Prussia and its strategic implications;
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the deep divergence between Peter III and Catherine II on the Prussian question;
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Catherine the Great’s consolidation of power after the coup of 1762 and the geopolitical direction she imposed on the Russian Empire.
By examining these themes, the article highlights how Russia transitioned from an erratic, personality-driven foreign policy to a coherent imperial strategy under Catherine the Great.
1. Peter III of Russia: Accession to the Throne and the Disruption of the European Balance
1.1 Origins and Political Context
Peter III, born Karl Peter Ulrich of Holstein-Gottorp, ascended the Russian throne in January 1762 following the death of Empress Elizabeth. Raised in a German environment and deeply influenced by Prussian military culture, Peter was widely perceived as alien to Russian political traditions, Orthodox culture, and imperial priorities. His foreign upbringing and admiration for Frederick II of Prussia profoundly shaped his geopolitical outlook.
At the time of his accession, Russia was deeply engaged in the Seven Years’ War and had emerged as one of Prussia’s most formidable adversaries. Russian forces had achieved remarkable success, occupying East Prussia and threatening Berlin itself. Russia’s position at the negotiating table was therefore extremely strong. Yet Peter III abruptly reversed this strategic advantage.
1.2 The Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1762) and the “Miracle of Brandenburg”
One of Peter III’s first acts was to withdraw Russia from the Seven Years’ War. The Treaty of Saint Petersburg, signed in May 1762, not only ended hostilities between Russia and Prussia but also restored all conquered territories to Frederick II without compensation. Even more controversially, Peter offered military assistance to Prussia, effectively transforming Russia from an enemy into an ally.
This decision is historically associated with the “Second Miracle of the House of Brandenburg”, as it saved Prussia from near defeat and allowed Frederick II to regroup against Austria and its allies. From a geopolitical perspective, Peter’s policy represented a dramatic rupture with Russia’s previous strategy of limiting Prussian power in Central Europe.
1.3 Motivations and Domestic Consequences
Peter III’s pro-Prussian orientation was driven less by strategic calculation than by personal admiration for Frederick II and ideological affinity with Prussian militarism. This approach ignored Russia’s long-term interests and alienated key domestic actors, including the military elite, the nobility, and the Orthodox clergy.
Internally, the consequences were disastrous. The army resented the nullification of its sacrifices, while the nobility viewed Peter’s policies as humiliating to Russian prestige. His inability to balance foreign policy with domestic legitimacy quickly undermined his authority, paving the way for his overthrow in July 1762.
2. Catherine the Great: The Construction of a Coherent Imperial Geopolitical Strategy
2.1 The Coup of 1762 and Diplomatic Prudence
Catherine II seized power through a palace coup supported by the Imperial Guard and influential noble factions. Although she had opposed Peter III’s Prussian alignment, Catherine initially confirmed the peace treaty to avoid renewed war and to stabilize her fragile position.
However, unlike her husband, Catherine did not pursue ideological alignment with Prussia. Instead, she adopted a pragmatic and flexible diplomacy aimed at maximizing Russia’s strategic autonomy within the European balance of power.
2.2 Reorientation of Russian Foreign Policy
Catherine the Great fundamentally redefined Russia’s geopolitical priorities. Her foreign policy was characterized by territorial expansion, diplomatic manipulation, and the systematic weakening of neighboring states that threatened Russian interests.
2.2.1 The Polish Question and the Partitions of Poland
One of Catherine’s central geopolitical objectives was the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In 1764, she orchestrated the election of Stanisław II Augustus Poniatowski, her former lover, as king of Poland, thereby securing Russian influence over Polish internal affairs.
Political instability within Poland provided Catherine with repeated pretexts for intervention. The Confederation of Bar (1768–1772) and internal resistance to reform weakened the Commonwealth, facilitating the First Partition of Poland in 1772, carried out jointly by Russia, Prussia, and Austria.
Subsequent partitions in 1793 and 1795 erased Poland from the map of Europe, transforming Russia into the dominant power in Eastern Europe. These partitions exemplify Catherine’s strategic realism: unlike Peter III’s emotional diplomacy, she pursued expansion through calculated multilateral agreements.
2.2.2 Wars Against the Ottoman Empire and the Black Sea Strategy
Equally central to Catherine’s geopolitical vision was the southern frontier. The Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774 ended with the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, which granted Russia unprecedented influence in Ottoman affairs and access to the Black Sea.
The treaty allowed Russia to protect Orthodox Christians within the Ottoman Empire and laid the groundwork for the annexation of Crimea in 1783. Control of Crimea transformed Russia into a major maritime power and strengthened its position in the eastern Mediterranean.
2.3 The “Greek Project” and Imperial Ideology
Catherine’s ambitions extended beyond immediate territorial gains. The so-called “Greek Project” envisioned the dismantling of Ottoman power in southeastern Europe and the restoration of a Byzantine-style empire under Russian patronage. Although never fully realized, the project illustrates Catherine’s conception of Russia as a civilizational and imperial force rather than a secondary European monarchy.
3. The Strategic Divide Between Peter III and Catherine II
3.1 Prussia, Power, and Political Rationality
The fundamental divergence between Peter III and Catherine II lies in their understanding of geopolitics. Peter’s alignment with Prussia was personal and ideological, lacking strategic depth and domestic legitimacy. By contrast, Catherine viewed Prussia as one actor within a broader diplomatic system, to be engaged when useful and restrained when necessary.
While Catherine maintained cordial relations with Frederick II, she never subordinated Russian interests to Prussian survival. Instead, she balanced relations with Austria, Prussia, and France while pursuing unilateral expansion where possible.
3.2 Legacy and Historical Significance
Peter III’s reign, though brief, dramatically altered the course of the Seven Years’ War and reshaped European diplomacy. However, his lack of strategic coherence rendered his policies unsustainable. Catherine’s long reign transformed Russia into a continental empire whose influence extended from the Baltic to the Black Sea.
Her geopolitical legacy endured well into the nineteenth century, shaping Russian foreign policy traditions based on expansion, buffer zones, and strategic depth.
Conclusion
The contrasting reigns of Peter III and Catherine the Great illustrate the decisive role of leadership and strategic vision in imperial geopolitics. Peter III’s pro-Prussian policies, driven by personal admiration rather than national interest, destabilized Russia’s position and led directly to his downfall. Catherine, by contrast, forged a coherent and ambitious foreign policy that elevated Russia to the status of a great power.
Through calculated diplomacy, territorial expansion, and ideological ambition, Catherine the Great redefined Russia’s place in Europe. Her reign stands as a foundational moment in the development of Russian imperial geopolitics and offers a lasting case study in the interaction between domestic power and international strategy.