The years 1918–1919 represent one of the most decisive turning points in the modern history of the Middle East. With the defeat of the Central Powers in World War I and the subsequent collapse of the Ottoman Empire, a massive political, territorial, and economic vacuum emerged across the region. That vacuum was quickly filled by the victorious European powers—primarily Great Britain and France—which moved to redraw borders, establish new states, and construct a geopolitical order based on their own strategic interests.

This process is crucial for understanding contemporary Middle Eastern geopolitics, the origins of many present-day conflicts, and the formation of states such as Iraq, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, and Mandatory Palestine. Britain played an especially dominant role, driven by strategic, economic, and energy-related priorities that shaped the entire regional settlement.

This article examines why Britain made these choices, how the new borders were drawn, and the geopolitical consequences that continue to influence the Middle East today.

1. The Collapse of the Ottoman Empire: The End of a Centuries-Old Order

Before 1914, the Middle East had been dominated for over six centuries by the Ottoman Empire. Although a number of modernization reforms were underway, by the outbreak of World War I the empire was widely considered the “sick man of Europe.” Corruption, administrative inefficiency, rising nationalist movements, and weakening military capacity undermined its ability to govern vast territories.

Its defeat in World War I triggered the final fragmentation of its Arab provinces, making it necessary for the victorious powers to design a new political structure to ensure security, influence, and access to resources.

2. Britain’s Geopolitical Interests in the Middle East

To understand the post-Ottoman settlement, it is essential to identify Britain’s motivations. London’s decisions between 1916 and 1922 were not accidental—they were the product of a clear strategic vision that included:

2.1. Protecting trade routes to India

India was the crown jewel of the British Empire. Securing the routes to the Indian Ocean required:

control of Egypt and the Suez Canal,
a stable military presence in the Persian Gulf,
friendly or dependent states across the Fertile Crescent.

2.2. Access to oil

By the early 20th century, oil had become a strategic resource, especially for the Royal Navy, which was converting from coal to oil. The discovery of petroleum in Persia (modern Iran) and Mesopotamia increased Britain’s interest in the region.

Controlling the oilfields of Iraq became a strategic priority.

2.3. Containing rival powers

Britain sought to prevent:

excessive French expansion,
a German resurgence,
Soviet Russia’s influence in the Caucasus and the Arab provinces.

A British-oriented Middle East served as a geopolitical buffer between Europe, Asia, and imperial trade routes.

2.4. Balancing Arab nationalism and Zionism

During the war, Britain made promises to both the Arabs (Hussein–McMahon correspondence) and the Zionist movement (Balfour Declaration, 1917). Reconciling these contradictory commitments proved extremely difficult.

3. The Sykes–Picot Agreement (1916): The First Blueprint for the New Middle East

Although negotiated during the war, the Sykes–Picot Agreement became the conceptual foundation of the post-Ottoman Middle East.

3.1. What the agreement established

British diplomat Mark Sykes and French negotiator François Georges-Picot divided the Arab provinces as follows:

French Zone: Inland Syria, Mount Lebanon, parts of northern Iraq including Mosul.
British Zone: Southern Mesopotamia, the Basra region.
Influence Zones: Britain in Transjordan and southern Palestine; France in inland Syria and northern Iraq.
Palestine: Assigned to an international administration.

This agreement introduced a defining principle: borders were drawn to serve colonial interests, not ethnic or cultural realities.

3.2. Why Britain accepted it

Britain’s priorities were:

containing French ambitions,
securing Iraq and the Persian Gulf,
maintaining the gateway to India.

The agreement was therefore a compromise largely favorable to British aims.

4. The San Remo Conference (1920): The Birth of the Mandate System

The 1920 San Remo Conference officially defined the new political order of the region. The League of Nations granted “mandates” to the victorious powers, authorizing them to administer former Ottoman territories.

4.1. British mandates

Iraq
Palestine
Transjordan

4.2. French mandates

Syria
Lebanon

Britain emerged as the dominant power, controlling the region’s most strategic and resource-rich territories.

5. The Creation of the State of Iraq (1920–1921)

One of the most important states shaped by Britain was Iraq, formed by merging three former Ottoman provinces:

Mosul (predominantly Kurdish),
Baghdad (mainly Sunni Arab),
Basra (mostly Shia Arab).

5.1. Why Britain unified such a diverse territory

The main reasons were:

a) Economic interests

The oil-rich region of Mosul was vital for British energy security. Incorporating Mosul into a single state under British influence ensured control over its petroleum reserves.

b) Administrative efficiency

Managing three separate territories would have been expensive and complex. A unified Iraq provided a more manageable administrative unit.

c) Installing a loyal ally

Britain placed Faisal ibn Hussein, a trusted wartime ally, on the Iraqi throne. A friendly Hashemite monarchy guaranteed political loyalty.

d) Countering Turkish ambitions

A unified Iraq created a buffer zone against potential Turkish attempts to reclaim former Ottoman provinces.

5.2. Long-term consequences

The artificial construction of Iraq resulted in:

sectarian divisions between Shia and Sunni communities,
ethnic conflict between Kurds and Arabs,
reliance on British military and political support,
chronic political instability.

Nevertheless, Britain achieved its short-term goals: Iraq became a geopolitical and economic partner aligned with British interests.

6. The Creation of Transjordan and the Birth of Jordan

The territory east of the Jordan River lacked a distinct political identity under Ottoman rule. For Britain, it served as a key buffer zone between:

Palestine,
Iraq,
Arabia.

6.1. Why Transjordan was created

In 1921, Winston Churchill established Transjordan, appointing Abdullah, Faisal’s brother, as emir. Britain’s motives included:

a) Honoring wartime promises to the Arabs

To compensate the Hashemites for losing the throne of Damascus (seized by France), Britain created two kingdoms for the two brothers: Iraq and Transjordan.

b) Protecting Palestine

Transjordan acted as a defensive barrier on the eastern flank of British-controlled Palestine.

c) Containing Saudi expansion

The region risked incursions from Ibn Saud’s Wahhabi forces. A Hashemite state under British protection stabilized the area.

6.2. An “artificial” state?

Many scholars describe Jordan as one of the most “artificial” states created after World War I. Yet, thanks to Hashemite governance and British support, it became one of the region’s most stable monarchies.

7. Mandatory Palestine: The Most Complex Case

Palestine received a special status under the British Mandate due to Britain’s conflicting wartime commitments.

7.1. Britain’s two promises

a) To the Arabs

Autonomy and independence after the war.

b) To the Jews (Balfour Declaration, 1917)

“His Majesty’s Government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people.”

7.2. Why Britain supported the Zionist project

to gain international political and financial backing,
to influence the Jewish community in the United States,
to create a “buffer” population loyal to British interests between Egypt and Transjordan.

7.3. Britain’s strategy

Britain attempted to balance:

increasing Jewish immigration from Europe,
the political expectations of the Arab population.

This unstable equilibrium led to violence, uprisings, and, ultimately, the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

8. The Persian Gulf and the Arabian Peninsula

Although Britain did not directly create Saudi Arabia, it strongly influenced the region.

8.1. Saudi Arabia

Ibn Saud’s conquests were facilitated by implicit British support, as London viewed him as a stabilizing force and a counterweight to rival Hashemite claims.

8.2. The Gulf protectorates

Britain established protectorates over:

Kuwait,
Bahrain,
Qatar,
the Trucial States (modern United Arab Emirates),

creating a protective chain along the maritime route to India and securing future access to oil.

9. Why Britain Drew “Artificial” Borders

One of the most debated aspects of the post-Ottoman settlement concerns the borders drawn between 1918 and 1922. These boundaries rarely reflected ethnic, religious, or tribal realities. Instead, they often divided communities or forced disparate groups into a single political entity.

Britain’s motivations included:

9.1. Political control

Fragmented states without strong national identities were more dependent on British support.

9.2. Preventing a unified Arab super-state

A single, large, united Arab state could challenge British hegemony. Fragmentation was a deliberate strategy.

9.3. Securing access to oil

By controlling Iraq and the Gulf, Britain ensured access to critical energy resources.

9.4. Balancing competing religious groups

Borders were sometimes drawn to keep ethnic or sectarian groups in tension to maintain British oversight as an “arbiter.”

9.5. Administrative convenience

Larger composite territorial units were easier to administer than a patchwork of small tribal principalities.

10. Consequences of the British Geopolitical Settlement

The decisions taken between 1918 and 1922 still shape Middle Eastern politics today.

10.1. Ethnic and sectarian conflicts

States included rival communities:

Sunnis and Shias in Iraq,
Arabs and Kurds in northern Iraq,
Arabs and Jews in Palestine.

10.2. Structural weakness of new states

Many states lacked cohesive national identities, making them prone to instability.

10.3. Continued British influence until the mid-20th century

Britain controlled military bases, economic concessions, and political agreements long after the mandates formally ended.

10.4. The Israeli-Palestinian conflict

Britain’s contradictory policies directly contributed to one of the longest and most violent conflicts in modern history.

10.5. Rise of Arab nationalism

Artificial borders and Western political interference fueled coups, authoritarian regimes, and pan-Arab movements across the region.

11. Conclusion: Why the 1918–1922 Geopolitical Settlement Still Matters

The reorganization of the Middle East after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire was not random. It followed a coherent British strategy aimed at securing trade routes, protecting imperial interests, guaranteeing access to oil, and establishing political dominance.

To achieve this, Britain:

drew artificial borders,
installed loyal monarchs,
suppressed local movements,
created states with competing identities,
and maintained a decisive presence for decades.

Many contemporary challenges—from the Israeli-Palestinian conflict to the Kurdish question, from sectarian tensions in Iraq to the fragile identities of Syria and Jordan—trace their origins to the choices made during those pivotal years.

Understanding how and why these states were created is essential for comprehending the past, present, and future of Middle Eastern geopolitics.