A Century of Blood, Power, and Change
The Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453) stands as one of the longest and most transformative conflicts in European history.
What began as a dynastic dispute between two royal houses evolved into a century-long struggle that redefined politics, warfare, and national identity.
Beneath the surface of feudal rivalry lay a deep shift in power structures, as both England and France transitioned from fragmented feudal kingdoms into centralized monarchies.
At the same time, the ideals of knighthood and chivalry — once the essence of medieval warfare — began to crumble in the face of new military technologies and social realities.
1. Dynastic Origins: The Capetian Legacy and the Question of Succession
At the heart of the conflict was a succession crisis in the French royal family.
When Charles IV of France (known as Charles the Fair) died in 1328 without a male heir, the Capetian dynasty — which had ruled France since 987 — came to an end.
The issue arose over who had the right to inherit the French throne. The French nobility invoked the Salic Law, an ancient Frankish code that excluded women (and their descendants through the female line) from royal succession.
However, Edward III of England, grandson of Philip IV the Fair through his mother Isabella of France, claimed the crown as the closest male descendant of the Capetians.
The French nobles, wary of uniting the crowns of France and England under one ruler, instead chose Philip VI of Valois, a cousin of Charles IV.
Feeling betrayed and deprived of his rights — as well as of his territories in Aquitaine — Edward III declared himself King of France in 1340, igniting what would become the Hundred Years’ War.
2. A Feudal Dispute Becomes a Continental War
Although born from a dynastic quarrel, the conflict soon grew into a continental war that reshaped medieval Europe.
France, though larger and wealthier, was divided among powerful feudal lords — Burgundy, Brittany, and Normandy — each pursuing their own interests.
England, smaller but more unified under the Plantagenets, sought to preserve its continental possessions — particularly Gascony (Aquitaine) — which remained technically vassal lands of the French crown.
The war drew in multiple powers and alliances:
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Burgundy, oscillating between loyalty to France and alliance with England.
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Brittany, embroiled in its own succession crisis.
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Scotland, bound to France by the Auld Alliance, opening a second front against England.
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Flanders, economically tied to English wool exports, often siding with London for trade reasons.
Thus, the Hundred Years’ War became not just a dynastic confrontation but a European geopolitical conflict involving economics, diplomacy, and ideology.
3. The First Phase (1337–1360): English Supremacy and the Age of Edward III
The opening decades of the war were dominated by spectacular English victories, made possible by innovative tactics and military organization.
3.1. Tactical Revolution and the Longbow
While the French knights relied on the traditional heavy cavalry charge, the English army — composed largely of archers and disciplined infantry — adopted flexible formations emphasizing mobility and firepower.
The longbow, a Welsh innovation, allowed English archers to decimate advancing cavalry from a distance, breaking the backbone of the French nobility.
This tactical superiority led to legendary victories at:
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Crécy (1346), where Edward III’s forces crushed the French aristocracy.
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Calais (1347), captured and held by England for over two centuries.
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Poitiers (1356), where Edward, the Black Prince, captured King John II of France, delivering a devastating blow to French morale.
The Treaty of Brétigny (1360) formalized English control over large swathes of French territory, marking the peak of England’s power in France.
4. The Crisis of Feudal Warfare and the Death of Chivalry
The Hundred Years’ War marked a turning point in the evolution of medieval warfare, signaling the decline of the knightly class and its ideals.
4.1. The Fall of the Knightly Elite
The medieval knight, once the supreme symbol of valor and nobility, found himself obsolete against organized infantry and ranged weaponry.
The crushing defeats at Crécy and Poitiers revealed that courage and lineage could not withstand disciplined formations and technological innovation.
The individual heroism of the chivalric age gave way to the collective efficiency of armies, logistics, and command — marking the end of the feudal warrior aristocracy.
4.2. The Rise of Firearms and Professional Armies
As the war progressed, gunpowder weapons began to appear on the battlefield. Cannons and primitive firearms eroded the dominance of knights and rendered castle fortifications increasingly vulnerable.
For the first time, monarchs began maintaining permanent standing armies, composed of professional soldiers and mercenaries rather than feudal levies.
This shift laid the foundation for the modern centralized state and redefined the relationship between ruler, army, and society.
5. The Second Phase (1369–1429): French Resurgence and Internal Strife
After the Treaty of Brétigny, the English seemed invincible. Yet under Charles V of France, nicknamed the Wise, the tide turned dramatically.
5.1. The French Recovery under Charles V
With the aid of the brilliant general Bertrand du Guesclin, France adopted a strategy of attrition, avoiding open battles and harassing English positions.
This guerrilla-style warfare gradually reclaimed lost territories and restored French confidence.
5.2. The Black Death and Social Upheaval
Amid the war, Europe was ravaged by the Black Death (1347–1352), which killed over a third of its population.
The plague exacerbated economic collapse, peasant revolts, and the rise of mercenary companies (routiers) who looted the countryside, deepening instability.
In England, the need to finance continuous campaigns strengthened Parliament’s control over taxation, foreshadowing the early stages of constitutional monarchy.
6. Joan of Arc and the Turning Point
By the early 15th century, France was again on the brink of collapse.
The catastrophic Battle of Agincourt (1415) — another triumph of English archery over French cavalry — left France politically shattered.
The mentally unstable King Charles VI signed the Treaty of Troyes (1420), recognizing Henry V of England as heir to the French throne and effectively uniting both crowns under the English monarchy.
Then came Joan of Arc, a young peasant girl from Domrémy who claimed divine inspiration to save France.
In 1429, her arrival at Orléans reinvigorated French resistance. Her leadership led to the city’s liberation and the coronation of Charles VII at Reims, restoring legitimacy to the French crown.
Joan’s capture and execution in 1431 transformed her into a national martyr and symbol of divine justice, galvanizing the French people and turning the war’s moral tide.
7. The Final Phase (1430–1453): French Victory and English Decline
Under Charles VII, France underwent a remarkable military and administrative revival.
The king established a permanent army, introduced tax reforms, and strengthened royal authority over rebellious nobles.
Armed with new artillery technology, French forces launched decisive campaigns to reclaim their lands:
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The Battle of Formigny (1450), which expelled the English from Normandy.
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The Battle of Castillon (1453), often considered the final engagement of the war, where English forces were decisively defeated by French cannon fire.
By 1453, the English had lost all their continental possessions except Calais, marking the end of their medieval empire in France.
8. Political Consequences: Two Monarchies, Two Destinies
8.1. France: The Birth of the Modern State
France emerged from the Hundred Years’ War more unified and centralized than ever before.
Charles VII and his successors curtailed the power of feudal lords, established a professional royal army, and consolidated fiscal control through permanent taxation.
Out of the ashes of war arose the foundations of the modern French state — a monarchy defined by national identity, territorial integrity, and centralized authority.
8.2. England: Defeat and Internal Conflict
For England, the outcome was disastrous.
The cost of the war and the loss of France fueled economic hardship and disillusionment among the nobility.
Factional rivalries erupted into the Wars of the Roses (1455–1487), a brutal civil conflict between the Houses of Lancaster and York.
The eventual victory of the Tudor dynasty under Henry VII marked the end of the medieval Plantagenets and the beginning of England’s transformation into a maritime and colonial power.
Paradoxically, the loss of continental ambitions strengthened England’s national identity and shifted its focus toward the seas.
9. The End of Chivalry: From Sword to Cannon
The Hundred Years’ War symbolized the death of chivalry and the dawn of modern warfare.
The noble ideals of honor, bravery, and personal combat were replaced by discipline, logistics, and technology.
The introduction of gunpowder weapons, professional armies, and state-funded war machines forever changed the balance of military power.
Knights became ceremonial figures, no longer decisive on the battlefield. The medieval age of feudal valor gave way to a new military rationality, marking the true end of the Middle Ages.
10. Legacy: From Feudal War to National Monarchies
The Hundred Years’ War reshaped Europe in profound and lasting ways:
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It destroyed the feudal order,
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Stimulated the rise of national consciousness,
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Fostered the centralization of royal power,
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And laid the groundwork for modern nation-states.
What began as a dispute over a throne became the crucible of modern Europe — forging the political, military, and ideological tools of a new era.
From the ashes of Crécy and Agincourt emerged not just victors and losers, but the birth of nations.
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Hundred Years’ War, medieval chivalry, England and France, dynastic conflict, feudal monarchy, Joan of Arc, Edward III, Charles VII, Plantagenet dynasty, Valois dynasty, Battle of Crécy, Battle of Poitiers, Black Death, rise of modern states.
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Discover the origins and consequences of the Hundred Years’ War — from the dynastic rivalry between England and France to the fall of medieval chivalry and the birth of modern national monarchies.